Approfondimento: Liberalism
Liberalism, a political philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, arose in Europe in the period between the Reformation and the French Revolution. During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries the medieval feudal order gradually gave way as Protestantism, the nation-state, commerce, science, cities, and a middle class of traders and industrialists developed. The new liberal order--drawing on Enlightenment thought--began to place human beings rather than God at the center of things. Humans, with their rational minds, could comprehend all things and could improve themselves and society through systematic and rational action.
Liberal thinking was hostile to the prerogatives of kings, aristocrats, and the church; it favored freedom--a natural right--from traditional restraints. These notions did much to precipitate the American and French revolutions and were important factors in various uprisings in the 19th century. Liberalism sought to expand civil liberties and to limit political authority in favor of constitutional representative government and promoted the rights to property and religious toleration. In the economic sphere, classical liberalism was opposed to direction by the state, arguing with Adam SMITH and David RICARDO that the forces of the marketplace were the best guide for the economy (see LAISSEZ-FAIRE).
One of the first thinkers to formulate a comprehensive liberal philosophy was the Englishman John LOCKE. As a political philosopher, Locke was widely influential. Thomas Jefferson drew upon his ideas in framing the Declaration of Independence, and the French Enlightenment philosophers VOLTAIRE and MONTESQUIEU were indebted to him. Leading liberal voices in the 19th century included Jeremy BENTHAM, John Stuart MILL, Alexis de TOCQUEVILLE, and Thomas Hill Green.
In its full flower in the 19th century, liberalism stood for limited government with a separation of powers among different branches such as the legislative, executive, and judicial and for economic free enterprise. Because of the reaction against the excesses of the French Revolution, however, liberalism shed some of its reliance on rationalism and began to base itself on utilitarianism. A link was thus forged between early revolutionary individualism and a new idealistic concern for the interests of society. In England the Liberal party, which espoused liberal doctrines, came into being (1846) under the leadership of Lord John Russell (later Earl Russell) and William E. GLADSTONE. In France, liberalism developed in opposition to the policies of the restored Bourbon kings and became a major force in the Third Republic; leading French liberals were Leon GAMBETTA and Georges CLEMENCEAU. In the United States the most characteristic representative of liberalism was Woodrow WILSON.
By the 20th century, political and economic thinking among liberals had begun to shift in response to an expanding and complex economy. Liberals began to support the idea that the government can best promote individual dignity and freedom through intervention in the economy and by establishing a state concerned about the welfare of its people. With the rise of the WELFARE STATE, the new liberals also looked to government to correct some of the ills believed to be caused by unregulated capitalism. They favored TAXATION, MINIMUM WAGE legislation, SOCIAL SECURITY, ANTITRUST LAWS, public education, safety and health laws, and other measures to protect consumers and preserve the environment (see GOVERNMENT REGULATION). Some liberals became socialists, although opposing doctrinaire Marxism and communism. The more traditional free-market liberals found themselves classed as conservatives.
Lennart Frantzell
Bibliography: De Ruggiero, Guido, The History of European Liberalism, trans. by R. C. Collingwood (1927; repr. 1977); Eccleshall, Robert, British Liberalism (1986); Gerber, William, American Liberalism, rev. ed. (1987); Gray, John, Liberalism (1986); Hamby, Alonzo, Liberalism and Its Challengers (1985); Macedo, Stephen, Liberal Virtues (1990; repr. 1991).
(da: Grolier Electronic Publishing)
Liberal thinking was hostile to the prerogatives of kings, aristocrats, and the church; it favored freedom--a natural right--from traditional restraints. These notions did much to precipitate the American and French revolutions and were important factors in various uprisings in the 19th century. Liberalism sought to expand civil liberties and to limit political authority in favor of constitutional representative government and promoted the rights to property and religious toleration. In the economic sphere, classical liberalism was opposed to direction by the state, arguing with Adam SMITH and David RICARDO that the forces of the marketplace were the best guide for the economy (see LAISSEZ-FAIRE).
One of the first thinkers to formulate a comprehensive liberal philosophy was the Englishman John LOCKE. As a political philosopher, Locke was widely influential. Thomas Jefferson drew upon his ideas in framing the Declaration of Independence, and the French Enlightenment philosophers VOLTAIRE and MONTESQUIEU were indebted to him. Leading liberal voices in the 19th century included Jeremy BENTHAM, John Stuart MILL, Alexis de TOCQUEVILLE, and Thomas Hill Green.
In its full flower in the 19th century, liberalism stood for limited government with a separation of powers among different branches such as the legislative, executive, and judicial and for economic free enterprise. Because of the reaction against the excesses of the French Revolution, however, liberalism shed some of its reliance on rationalism and began to base itself on utilitarianism. A link was thus forged between early revolutionary individualism and a new idealistic concern for the interests of society. In England the Liberal party, which espoused liberal doctrines, came into being (1846) under the leadership of Lord John Russell (later Earl Russell) and William E. GLADSTONE. In France, liberalism developed in opposition to the policies of the restored Bourbon kings and became a major force in the Third Republic; leading French liberals were Leon GAMBETTA and Georges CLEMENCEAU. In the United States the most characteristic representative of liberalism was Woodrow WILSON.
By the 20th century, political and economic thinking among liberals had begun to shift in response to an expanding and complex economy. Liberals began to support the idea that the government can best promote individual dignity and freedom through intervention in the economy and by establishing a state concerned about the welfare of its people. With the rise of the WELFARE STATE, the new liberals also looked to government to correct some of the ills believed to be caused by unregulated capitalism. They favored TAXATION, MINIMUM WAGE legislation, SOCIAL SECURITY, ANTITRUST LAWS, public education, safety and health laws, and other measures to protect consumers and preserve the environment (see GOVERNMENT REGULATION). Some liberals became socialists, although opposing doctrinaire Marxism and communism. The more traditional free-market liberals found themselves classed as conservatives.
Lennart Frantzell
Bibliography: De Ruggiero, Guido, The History of European Liberalism, trans. by R. C. Collingwood (1927; repr. 1977); Eccleshall, Robert, British Liberalism (1986); Gerber, William, American Liberalism, rev. ed. (1987); Gray, John, Liberalism (1986); Hamby, Alonzo, Liberalism and Its Challengers (1985); Macedo, Stephen, Liberal Virtues (1990; repr. 1991).
(da: Grolier Electronic Publishing)
Etichette: corso
posted by RTD at 21:23
<< Home